2013; De Tender et al. 2001; EFSA 2016; FAO 2017). Provencher et al. 208:59-68. 2019). 2019). Exposure increased the time of first brood release (49%) and reduced the total number of broods released by 71%. 2019. In the upper airway, particles may diffuse through mucus and reach underlying epithelium, where translocation may occur. 2018; Liboiron et al. Current understanding of microplastics in the environment: Occurrence, fate, risks, and what we should do. 2017. PeerJ. 65(2):143-147. (2019) found that microplastics altered biomass and root traits in Allium fistulosum. 2019; Toussaint et al. 2018. (2018) reported the occurrence of microplastics in the surface water, water column and sediment of the Bohai Sea of the Pacific Ocean. PLoS One. There was also noticeable tissue damage in the stomachs and intestines of snails exposed to microfibres. Transgeneration proteome plasticity in resilience of a marine copepod in response to environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastics. unknown]). Biofouling, also known as biofilm formation, is the coating of plastics with microorganisms, algae or plants. 642:12-20. Microplastics have been found in many species, including invertebrates, fish, turtles, mammals, and birds. 2019). 2020a. Environ Sci Technol. This review suggests that microplastics in ballast waters serve as ‘hotspots’ for the development and spread of multiple drug-resistant human pathogens through co-selection mechanisms. 11:109-113. 2018; Renzi et al. This study reported a microplastic removal rate greater than 99.99% for particles ˃25 µm by eight DWTPs in the United Kingdom using conventional treatment processes. 2017). Due to physicochemical similarities, information on primary microplastics was used as surrogate information where information on secondary microplastics was not readily available. 216:110-116. Macro- and micro- plastics in soil-plant system: Effects of plastic mulch film residues on wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth. (2018) predicted that a 1.6 million km2 zone of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch contains 1.8 trillion pieces of plastics and weighs 79 000 tonnes. 236:425-431. In Canada, total sales of plastic were estimated to be $35 billion in 2017, with approximately 4 667 kt introduced to the Canadian market in 2016 (ECCC 2019a). Small foci of granular material with mild inflammation, in alveoli and alveolar ducts. They include standardized field and lab techniques, as well as reporting guidelines for data (Provencher et al. Schneider T, Burdett G, Martinon L, Brochard P, Guillemin M, Teichert U, Draeger U. For example, knowing what proportion of particulate matter is composed of plastic polymers and knowing whether airborne plastic particles behave similarly to other airborne particulates would be useful in determining whether inferences can be made from the wealth of knowledge that exists on particulate matter. Interactions of microplastics with freshwater biota. A limited number of studies have measured microplastics in tap water, and even fewer are considered reliable due to concerns with quality assurance measures (WHO 2019). 2017). In the draft science assessment, published in January 2020, information identified up to June 2019 was considered for inclusion, in addition to the August 2019 World Health Organization (WHO) report on microplastics in drinking water and the October 2019 Ocean Wise report on microfibres (Vassilenko et al. History and properties. A further breakdown of these effects by level of biological organization shows that of the demonstrated impacts from macro-sized litter, the majority were classified as suborganismal, with the most common effects being seen in tissues (e.g., inflammation or lacerations) and organ systems (e.g., poor functioning). Fish exposed to 12.5 to 100 mg/L had higher head height and larger optic vesicle area than controls. 2018). 126 p. Report No. (2018) did not find significant concentrations of microplastics in tap water sampled from 17 different locations across Denmark sourced by groundwater. 2018; Akhbarizadeh et al. Desforges J-PW, Galbraith M, Ross PS. Transfer of PCBs from microplastic under simulated gut fluid conditions is biphasic and reversible. Responses of Hyalella azteca to acute and chronic microplastic exposures. The influx of plastic particles into these cavities subsequently immobilized the springtails within. While mechanisms of translocation from an organism’s gut to other parts of its body are not well studied to date, the current literature has shown that translocation is usually size-dependent. Plastic pollution has been shown to impact organisms and their habitats. Recent advances in the understanding of uptake of microparticulates across the gastrointestinal lymphatics. Archi Environ Contam Toxicol. Tributary samples ranged from 10 to 462 particles/kg sediment with fragments dominating the samples, followed by fibres. Karthik R, Robin RS, Purvaja R, Ganguly D, Anandavelu I, Raghuraman R, Hariharan G, Ramakrishna A, Ramesh R. 2018. Transfer also occurred between a broader (i.e., more distantly related) group of microorganisms on the microplastics than in the natural environment. 2014; Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen 2014; Li et al. No mortality was reported when exposed to microplastics; however, snails not exposed to microplastics lost significantly more weight than those that were. Mar Pollut Bull. In a study modelling the transfer of POPs from PVC and PE to benthic invertebrates, fish, and seabirds, Bakir et al. 30(2):204-219. The average concentration of microplastics in the water column ranged from 1.6 to 6.9 particles/L. 251:117-127. 112:234-240. 2012. (2019) investigated the effects of leachates from HDPE bags and compostable Mater-bi (MB) bags on seed germination. Aquatic ecotoxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics: Lessons learned from engineered nanomaterials. Nizzetto L, Futter M, Langaas S. 2016. Deng Y, Zhang Y, Qiao R, Bonilla MM, Yang X, Ren H, Lemos B. The plastic in microplastics: A review. L. minor were exposed to an estimated concentration of 50 000 microplastics/mL and colonies were fed to G. duebeni adults. Developing standardized methods for sampling, quantifying, characterizing, and evaluating the effects of macroplastics and microplastics; Furthering the understanding of human exposure to microplastics; Furthering the understanding of the ecotoxicological effects of microplastics; Furthering the understanding of the effects of microplastics on human health; and. An accelerated laboratory study evaluating the disintegration rates of plastic films in simulated aquatic environments. 2014. Through various mechanisms, such as the formation of biofilms—layers of microorganisms that form on a surface—microplastics in surface waters may eventually sink, leading to the accumulation of microplastics in the sediment of both freshwater and marine environments. Effects in the respiratory tract are likely related to the physical impact of microplastics as particulate matter and include oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, inflammation, and development of foreign body granulomas. Sørensen L, Rogers E, Altin D, Salaberria I, Booth AM. 2019. 2020. However, settling rate increased in larvae exposed to microplastic. Microplastics pollution in inland freshwaters of China: A case study in urban surface waters of Wuhan, China. The authors note that this might be related to the presence of PET and PBT in the mulch, which have been shown in previous studies to have stronger negative effects on soil-plant systems than LDPE (Qi et al. These qualitative criteria draw from the knowledge presented in Koelmans et al. Nat Nanotechnol. However, a hot needle was used to test whether the suspected plastic particles melted, to confirm that the particle was plastic (Campbell et al. Samuel P Huntington The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order 1996 Microplastics: An introduction to environmental transport processes. 255(Pt 2):113174. Environ Sci Technol. Preliminary trajectory assessments showed that the microplastics had travelled up to 95 km from their source, indicating possible long-range transport. The effects of biofilms on human health are also discussed. Overall, fragments were more predominant than fibres, comprising 63% to 73% of microplastics in biosolids. 2015; Iñiguez et al. 204:17-25. 2016; Oberbeckmann et al. This study investigated the effects of PVC microplastics that contained the plasticizer diisononylphthalate (DiNP) on Daphnia magna. Zhang Y, Gu AZ, Cen T, Li X, He M, Li D, Chen J. Because this material is synthesized using cellulose, it is not always grouped with microplastics. This would help to characterize the effects of environmentally relevant plastics. Weber et al. Oberbeckmann S, Labrenz M. 2020. Regeneration was 8.3 ± 1.4% for this group, compared with 20.7 ± 2.5% in the control group. Oberdörster G, Sharp Z, Atudorei V, Gelein EA, Kreyling W, Cox C. 2004. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. Bilthoven (NL): National Institute for Public Health and the Environment. The authors hypothesize that 0.5 μm microplastics have longer retention times that correlate to more negative effects. In addition to PE, other plastic polymers are used in the packaging sector, such as PVC, PET and PP (ECCC 2019c). The average excretion rates were decreased by 29.3%, 46.6% and 69.7%, respectively. (2018), these criteria are not an absolute judgement of the value of studies. All five polymer types were highly resistant to degradation from the artificial digestive fluids, suggesting that the human GI tract does not degrade microplastic particles. However, no data have been identified on partitioning of microplastics in indoor environments, and inhalation is therefore also considered a potential exposure route. 2018). Adverse effects of non-biodegradable and compostable plastic bags on the establishment of coastal dune vegetation: First experimental evidences. This section reviews data on the effects of both macroplastics and microplastics on environmental receptors. 2017. 2015). Technical Series No. Environ Sci Technol. This section reviews the available data on the occurrence of macroplastics and microplastics in aquatic and terrestrial environments and air, as well as in other matrices through which humans may be exposed to microplastics of environmental origin (namely food and drinking water). 2019. Further, they observed no effects on the reproduction of the freshwater worm Lumbriculus variegatus. 615. (Reproduced and adapted with permission from Figure 2 of Baldwin et al. 2019. Environmentally relevant microplastic exposure affects sediment-dwelling bivalves. It provides a review of the available information on plastic pollution, including its sources, occurrence, and fate, as well as on the potential effects of plastic pollution on the environment and human health. c Microplastic concentrations in salt varied considerably depending on the origin and type of salt. Entanglement can lead to suffocation, strangulation, or smothering, and a high frequency of reported entanglements have led to direct harm or mortality. Redondo-Hasselerharm et al. Sea salts contained the highest concentrations of microplastics, ranging from 0 to 19 800 microplastics per kg of salt (Yang et al. Significant increase in reabsorption sites in exposed rats (both acute and repeat). Arch Toxicol. The study also examined the toxicity of microplastic leachates by conducting toxicity tests on Artemia nauplii, D. magna and D. rerio. 54(6):771-778. (2007), PU was observed in soil at different organic carbon contents and different pH levels, and their fungal communities were compared. EFSA J. Additionally, vertical transport of microplastics is possible via the movement of soil organisms (Huerta Lwanga et al. Geneva (CH): WHO. 2004. Long-term microplastic retention causes reduced body condition in the langoustine, Nephrops norvegicus. Similarly, Kim and An (2019) found that microplastic infiltration into soil system bio-pores caused movement inhibition in the invertebrate Lobella sokamensis. 2015). 2018), particles visually identified as microplastics were found to be abundant in the sediment samples from all sampling locations. Furthermore, effects studies are largely conducted with PS microplastic spheres, which are not representative of plastics found in the environment. 2016. Hämer et al. The distribution of microplastics in soil aggregate fractions in southwestern China. Chen Q, Allgeier A, Yin D, Hollert H. 2019. 2018). Using differential food regime experiments, it was also found that this effect could also be seen when using low concentrations of algae and that increasing algal concentrations led to decreasing microplastic uptakes. 2006; Wright et al. 2018; Peeken et al. Uptake of microplastics and related health effects: a critical discussion of Deng et al., Scientific reports 7:46687, 2017. (2016)). 150:110722. Schuyler Q, Hardesty BD, Wilcox C, Townsend K. 2014. Most of the microplastics recovered were spheres, followed by fragments (Mani et al. 199:185-191. (2019) observed microplastic deposition in the French Pyrenees, a remote mountain catchment. 213:323-332. Lymphocytopenia and occupational exposures among pattern and model makers. ANNEX to the ANNEX XV Restriction Report - Proposal for a restriction on intentionally added microplastics. Sci Total Environ. Foamed PS items were the most frequently observed macroplastics surveyed in the South Pacific, North Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian Oceans as well as around Australia (Eriksen et al. Microplastics in the terrestrial ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae). Mintenig et al. (2018) found that while pH and turbidity of the water had little effect on the microplastics removal efficiency, the microplastics themselves can actually influence the turbidity of water at sufficient concentrations. When exposing D. magna for 14 days to microplastics, there was a significant reduction in the number of total offspring and a higher frequency of immobile juveniles. 2006. 2016. The measured concentration of the suspension was 0.758 x 105 particles/L. 2018b). 187:109852. Woodall LC, Sanchez-Vidal A, Canals M, Paterson GLJ, Coppock R, Sleight V, Calafat A, Rogers AD, Narayanaswamy BE, Thompson RC. As Canadians spend approximately 90% of their time indoors, data on both indoor and outdoor microplastic exposures are needed to determine personal exposures, to understand their sources, pathways, fate, and distribution, and to identify and prioritize specific microplastic categories or mixtures for future research. In cladocerans (Daphnia spp. In Lake Erie, pellets and fibres made up the majority of the samples, and in Lake Ontario, fragments dominated. A. rosea exposed to soil with HDPE lost significantly more biomass than controls. There are no Canadian data available, but limited studies were conducted in Europe, Asia and the Middle East. It is unclear what impact this has, but some have hypothesized that it may result in reduced competition and predation, leading to the emergence of potential pathogens (Amalfitano et al. 50:3239-3246. Mar Pollut Bull. Environ Pollut. 2016). Exposure of coastal dune vegetation to plastic bag leachates: A neglected impact of plastic litter. J Appl Polym Sci. A study by Wang et al. Environ Toxicol Chem. Republic of South Africa: Water Research Commission. However, there was an inverse relationship between the number of fibres and their size, suggesting that smaller fibres could be present in larger numbers. Compounds with potential human health effects that are additives of plastics include phthalates, PBDEs, lead, and cadmium (WHO 2019), among others. Sci Adv. Dris R, Gasperi J, Rocher V, Saad M, Renault N, Tassin B. Microplastics in Sewage Sludge: Effects of Treatment. There was no significant difference in retention rate. (2019) acknowledge that their criteria are not an absolute judgement of the value of studies since not all aspects of studies could be captured in their scoring system. 2019b. Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: Part two of a global assessment. Watts AJR, Urbina MA, Corr S, Lewis C, Galloway TS. Water Res. Atmosphere. In finalizing the science assessment, a review of information published up to March 2020 was conducted (see Appendix A and Section 5.1.1 for relevant new information), in addition to considering comments submitted through public consultation. To estimate biodegradation, many studies examine factors such as weight loss, decrease in tensile strength, visual disappearance, or the growth of different microorganisms (Zumstein et al. Pedà C, Caccamo L, Fossi MC, Gai F, Andaloro F, Genovese L, Perdichizzi A, Romeo T, Maricchiolo G. 2016. Chemosphere. Investigating a probable relationship between microplastics and potentially toxic elements in fish muscles from northeast of Persian Gulf. This study investigated the effects of PA microplastics on PBDE accumulation in snails (Lymnaea stagnalis). Environ Pollut. Tang BL. 2017; Burns and Boxall 2018; Dean et al. The surface transfer doping is related to surface states, surface adsorbates and defects in the dielectric layer. Microplastic size-dependent toxicity, oxidative stress induction, and p-JNK and p-p38 activation in the monogonont rotifer (Brachionus koreanus). While the ingestion of microplastics has been widely demonstrated, egestion has also been shown to be possible in some organisms. 2016). There was no clear trend in microplastic accumulation at any specific depth along the water column, and the abundance in sediments was inconsistent with the water column. Microplastic exposure led to reduced body weight gain in male F0 mice, an increase in the relative proportion of neutrophils in the blood of male and female F0 mice, and the migration of granules to the mast cell membrane, damage/degeneration of the mast cell membrane, the persistence of PE microplastic-like material in the stomach, the accumulation of damaged organelles in the spleen, and an increase in IgA in the blood of female F0 mice.

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